Ongoing traumatic stress during a global pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has been conceptualized as a potentially traumatic event, although heterogeneity in experience (e.g., isolation) and in type and severity of traumatic stress response (e.g., hygiene hypervigilance) query the applicability of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnostic construct. Parallels may be drawn to chronic illness and continuous traumatic situations (CTS) literature, which suggests unique symptom presentations that may occur during cumulative, ongoing traumas. METHOD: Eighty-four adults completed the PTSD Checklist with appended questions evaluating pandemic index events, temporality of intrusive symptoms, self-appraised abnormality, and context dependence of symptoms. Using exploratory latent profile analysis, we modeled the latent structure of traumatic stress response to COVID-19 in order to evaluate possible nuanced patterns of symptoms differentiating PTSD from a transient ongoing trauma response. RESULTS: Two profiles broadly delineated by severity across all variables emerged, suggesting the framework of PTSD is apt when applied to COVID-19. However, secondary analyses revealed subtle signals supporting chronic illness and CTS frameworks. Specifically, some participants who met criteria for PTSD did not endorse index events meeting Criterion A, most endorsed intrusive symptoms related to a present or future threat (versus a past trauma), and 30% reported their symptoms to be context dependent. CONCLUSION: Results highlight a need for improved assessment and opportunities for treatment modification. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Mental health and resilience during the coronavirus pandemic: A machine learning approach.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored risk and resilience factors of mental health functioning during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. METHODS: A sample of 467 adults (M age = 33.14, 63.6% female) reported on mental health (depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], and somatic symptoms), demands and impacts of COVID-19, resources (e.g., social support, health care access), demographics, and psychosocial resilience factors. RESULTS: Depression, anxiety, and PTSD rates were 44%, 36%, and 23%, respectively. Supervised machine learning models identified psychosocial factors as the primary significant predictors across outcomes. Greater trauma coping self-efficacy and forward-focused coping, but not trauma-focused coping, were associated with better mental health. When accounting for psychosocial resilience factors, few external resources and demographic variables emerged as significant predictors. CONCLUSION: With ongoing stressors and traumas, employing coping strategies that emphasize distraction over trauma processing may be warranted. Clinical and community outreach efforts should target trauma coping self-efficacy to bolster resilience during a pandemic.

The power of appraisals in predicting PTSD symptom improvement following cognitive rehabilitation: A randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Patients with PTSD often voice concern over their perceived change in cognitive functioning. However, these negative appraisals do not always align with objective neuropsychological performance, yet are strongly predictive of PTSD symptom severity and self-reported functional impairment. METHODS: The present study involves a secondary analysis examining the role of appraisals of a subsample of 81 adults with full or subthreshold PTSD on treatment outcomes in a randomized controlled trial investigating the effectiveness of a cognitive rehabilitation treatment, Strategic Memory and Reasoning Training (n = 38), compared to a psychoeducation control arm, the Brain Health Workshop (n = 43). Neither condition addressed PTSD symptoms, focusing instead on cognitive skills training and psychoeducation about the brain. RESULTS: Intent-to-treat models showed statistically significant improvements for both groups on composite scores of executive functioning and memory. Additionally, both groups experienced clinically significant reductions in PTSD symptoms (assessed via the Clinician-Administered PTSD Interview) and the SMART group showed fewer negative appraisals about cognitive functioning following training. Change in appraisals of cognitive functioning was associated with change in PTSD as well as change in quality of life, with no differential associations based on group status. In contrast, neurocognitive test score changes were not associated with change in symptoms or functional outcomes. LIMITATIONS: We did not collect data on other appraisals (e.g., self-efficacy), which could have further elucidated pathways of change. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that interventions that do not directly target PTSD symptoms can lead to PTSD symptom change via change in appraisals of functioning.

Social engagement, self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress symptoms across 6 months of psychotherapy.

OBJECTIVE: The current study was conducted in a naturalistic treatment setting to examine whether and how perceptions about social engagement, trauma coping self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS) influence one another across 6 months of psychotherapy for trauma survivors. METHOD: The sample included 183 clients who reported exposure to traumatic events and significant PTS (PCL-5 ≥ 33). Participants (Mage = 37.8, 53.6% female) completed surveys at intake, 3 months, and 6 months into treatment. A cross-lagged panel analysis was used to test the relationships among perceived social engagement, coping self-efficacy, and PTS across three assessment points. RESULTS: PTS at 3-months was a mediator in the relationship between intake perceived social engagement and 6-month coping self-efficacy and between intake perceived social engagement and 6-month perceived social engagement. CONCLUSIONS: PTS several months into treatment may serve as a mechanism between intake perceived social engagement and functional outcomes such as coping self-efficacy.

Cognitive Training for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Although there is evidence of mild cognitive impairments for many individuals with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), little research evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive training interventions has been conducted. This randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of a 9-h group cognitive training targeting higher-order functions, Strategic Memory Advanced Reasoning Training (SMART), compared to a 9-h psychoeducational control group in improving neurocognitive functioning in adults with mTBI and PTSD. A sample of 124 adults with histories of mild TBI (n = 117) and/or current diagnoses of PTSD (n = 84) were randomized into SMART (n = 66) or Brain Health Workshop (BHW; n = 58) and assessed at three time points: baseline, following training, and 6 months later. Participants completed a battery of neurocognitive tests, including a test of gist reasoning (a function directly targeted by SMART) as well as tests of verbal, visual, and working memory and executive functioning, functions commonly found to be mildly impaired in mTBI and PTSD. The two groups were compared on trajectories of change over time using linear mixed-effects models with restricted maximum likelihood (LMM). Contrary to our hypothesis that SMART would result in superior improvements compared to BHW, both groups displayed statistically and clinically significant improvements on measures of memory, executive functioning, and gist reasoning. Over 60% of the sample showed clinically significant improvements, indicating that gains can be found through psychoeducation alone. A longer SMART protocol may be warranted for clinical samples in order to observe gains over the comparison group.

Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms in Survivors of Torture Living in the United States.

A constellation of psychosocial factors contributes to the complex trauma symptoms that survivors of torture may experience. We examined the roles of pretrauma, peritrauma, and postmigration factors as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety in a sample of 101 culturally heterogeneous torture survivors residing in the United States. Predictors included demographic variables (sex, education, marital status), peritrauma torture type variables generated by principal components analysis (PCA), and postmigration variables (employment status, legal immigration status, and family separation). Of the torture factors identified through PCA (torture inflicted on the self and torture inflicted on family members), torture inflicted on the self significantly predicted anxiety. Undocumented legal status and female sex were related to poorer psychological outcomes. Results highlight the importance of considering postmigration factors, specifically legal status, rather than elements of the torture experience itself, in the delivery of trauma-informed psychological interventions and policy development for survivors of torture.

Somatic burden and perceived cognitive problems in trauma-exposed adults with posttraumatic stress symptoms or pain.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with somatic and cognitive changes, which may be magnified when accompanied by persistent pain. The mechanisms of somatic sensation processing may extend to cognitive symptoms, revealing a potential generalization of impairment across cognitive and somatic domains in PTSD. We hypothesized that somatic burden would mediate relationships between PTSD, pain, and perceived cognitive impairment. METHODS: Two samples-360 trauma-exposed college students and 268 mechanical Turk users-completed self-report measures. RESULTS: Both samples revealed similar findings. There was a significant indirect effect of PTSD and pain on perceived cognitive problems through somatic burden. There remained a direct effect of PTSD symptoms. These findings indicate that in trauma-exposed samples with pain, somatic burden rather than pain severity accounts for perceived cognitive problems. CONCLUSION: High somatic burden may reflect an underlying appraisal about somatic cues, which extend in part to interpretation of cognitive cues.

Is Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) a comparable recruitment source for trauma studies?

OBJECTIVE: Trauma researchers have recently begun using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) as a data collection platform that is both time- and cost-efficient. Research is needed to determine the utility, generalizability, and validity of MTurk as a recruitment source for trauma-exposed samples. METHOD: Data were collected from 266 trauma-exposed MTurk participants on several clinical and psychological constructs relevant to trauma research. The mean scores, prevalence rates, and correlation strengths of the MTurk sample were compared to those reported in previously published studies of undergraduate, community, and treatment-seeking samples. RESULTS: Findings indicated that prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were not significantly different from comparison samples, but prevalence rates of generalized anxiety were significantly higher than that of a community sample. The MTurk sample showed significantly lower mean scores of PTSD, depression, and generalized anxiety symptoms than all comparison samples. Correlations were examined to determine whether established relationships between common trauma-related constructs were correlated for MTurk participants as they were in other samples. Correlations between PTSD symptom severity, posttraumatic cognitions (PTCs), and trauma coping self-efficacy (CSE-T) in the MTurk sample were not significantly different from the correlations observed in all comparison samples. Finally, MTurk participants who met criteria for probable PTSD scored significantly higher on measures of depression, generalized anxiety, and PTCs, and lower on CSE-T, than those without probable PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: Future trauma researchers utilizing MTurk should consider potential similarities and differences between MTurk samples and community, clinical, and undergraduate samples when interpreting the generalizability of findings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Predeployment neurocognitive functioning predicts postdeployment posttraumatic stress in Army personnel.

OBJECTIVE: The Fort Campbell Cohort study was designed to assess predeployment biological and behavioral markers and build predictive models to identify risk and resilience for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following deployment. This article addresses neurocognitive functioning variables as potential prospective predictors. METHOD: In a sample of 403 soldiers, we examined whether PTSD symptom severity (using the PTSD Checklist) as well as posttraumatic stress trajectories could be prospectively predicted by measures of executive functioning (using two web-based tasks from WebNeuro) assessed predeployment. RESULTS: Controlling for age, gender, education, prior number of deployments, childhood trauma exposure, and PTSD symptom severity at Phase 1, linear regression models revealed that predeployment sustained attention and inhibitory control performance were significantly associated with postdeployment PTSD symptom severity. We also identified two posttraumatic stress trajectories utilizing latent growth mixture models. The "resilient" group consisted of 90.9% of the soldiers who exhibited stable low levels of PTSD symptoms from pre- to postdeployment. The "increasing" group consisted of 9.1% of the soldiers, who exhibited an increase in PTSD symptoms following deployment, crossing a threshold for diagnosis based on PTSD Checklist scores. Logistic regression models predicting trajectory revealed a similar pattern of findings as the linear regression models, in which predeployment sustained attention (95% CI of odds ratio: 1.0109, 1.0558) and inhibitory control (95% CI: 1.0011, 1.0074) performance were significantly associated with postdeployment PTSD trajectory. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have clinical implications for understanding the pathogenesis of PTSD and building preventative programs for military personnel. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Impulsivity, Painful and Provocative Events, and Suicide Intent: Testing the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.

OBJECTIVE: The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (IPTS; Joiner, 2005. Why People Die by Suicide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press) hypothesizes that repeated exposure to painful and provocative events (PPE) increases capability for suicide (CS), therefore facilitating the development of suicidal intent, and that impulsive individuals are more likely to experience these painful and provocative events, creating an indirect relationship between impulsivity and CS. Research to date largely supports this hypothesis but has not translated this theory to actual suicidal intent. METHOD: The present study used data from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study to examine the relationship between PPE and intent, and the indirect relationship between impulsivity and intent among a sample of 245 recent suicide attempters, using the clinician-rated Suicide Intent Scale as an objective measure of intent. RESULTS: Results supported the hypothesized direct relationship between PPE and intent, and the indirect relationship between impulsivity and intent through PPE. There was no direct relationship between impulsivity and intent, suggesting that the relationship between impulsivity and intent occurs entirely through exposure to PPE. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that assessing exposure to painful and provocative events is critical in evaluating risk of suicide, and that impulsivity itself does not confer an increased risk of lethal or nearly lethal attempts.

The Association Between PTSD and Functional Outcome Is Mediated by Perception of Cognitive Problems Rather Than Objective Neuropsychological Test Performance.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been consistently linked to poorer functional outcomes, including quality of life, health problems, and social and occupational functioning. Less is known about the potential mechanisms by which PTSD leads to poorer functional outcomes. We hypothesized that neurocognitive functioning and perception of cognitive problems would both mediate the relationship between PTSD diagnosis and functioning. In a sample of 140 veterans of the recent wars and conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, we assessed PTSD symptoms, history of traumatic brain injury (TBI), depression, self-report measures of quality of life, social and occupational functioning, and reintegration to civilian life, as well as perception of cognitive problems. Veterans also completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery of tests. Structural equation modeling revealed that perception of cognitive problems, but not objective neuropsychological performance, mediated the relationship between PTSD diagnosis and functional outcomes after controlling for TBI, depression, education, and a premorbid IQ estimate, b = -6.29, 95% bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence interval [-11.03, -2.88], showing a large effect size. These results highlight the importance of addressing appraisals of posttrauma cognitive functioning in treatment as a means of improving functional outcomes.

Trauma Type and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder as Predictors of Parenting Stress in Trauma-Exposed Mothers.

Trauma exposure is associated with various parenting difficulties, but few studies have examined relationships between trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and parenting stress. Parenting stress is an important facet of parenting and mediates the relationship between parental trauma exposure and negative child outcomes (Owen, Thompson, & Kaslow, 2006). We examined trauma type (child maltreatment, intimate partner violence, community violence, and non-interpersonal traumas) and PTSD symptoms as predictors of parenting stress in a sample of 52 trauma-exposed mothers. Community violence exposure and PTSD symptom severity accounted for significant variance in parenting stress. Further analyses revealed that emotional numbing was the only PTSD symptom cluster accounting for variance in parenting stress scores. Results highlight the importance of addressing community violence exposure and emotion regulation difficulties with trauma-exposed mothers.

PTSD symptoms and perception of cognitive problems: The roles of posttraumatic cognitions and trauma coping self-efficacy.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with mild neurocognitive deficits, yet clients often complain of cognitive problems that exceed what their objective performance demonstrates. In addition, PTSD is associated with negative appraisals about the self, traumatic event, and one's ability to cope. This study examined posttraumatic cognitions as a moderator, and trauma coping self-efficacy as a mediator, of the relationship between PTSD symptoms and self-report of cognitive problems. METHOD: A sample of 268 trauma-exposed adults completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5, the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, the Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy Scale, the Cognitive Self-Report Questionnaire, and the Quality of Life Scale. RESULTS: Negative self-appraisals was a significant moderator in the relationship between PTSD symptoms and perception of cognitive problems (ß = -.252, p = .001). In participants with high levels of negative posttraumatic cognitions, perception of cognitive problems was high regardless of PTSD symptom level. In a mediator analysis, there was a significant indirect effect of trauma coping self-efficacy (b = .125, 95% CI [.088, .172]). Finally, there was evidence of moderated mediation, such that trauma coping self-efficacy was a mediator only when posttraumatic cognitions were low or average. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that posttraumatic appraisals and coping self-efficacy play significant roles in perception of cognitive problems following trauma. Clinically, in patients for which there is a perception of cognitive impairment that is not borne out in neuropsychological testing, cognitive-behavioral therapy focused on altering negative self-perceptions and appraisals may be beneficial. (PsycINFO Database Record

Maternal PTSD and Children's Adjustment: Parenting Stress and Emotional Availability as Proposed Mediators.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a risk factor for negative child adjustment, but it is unclear whether this association is direct (e.g., a mother's PTSD symptoms are observed, learned, and internalized by children which results in behavioral and emotional problems) or indirect, through parent-child relationship difficulties or parenting stress. We hypothesized that parenting stress and maternal emotional availability would exhibit indirect effects on relationships between maternal PTSD and children's functioning. METHOD: Participants were 52 trauma-exposed mothers and their children (aged 7-12 years). Mothers completed measures of PTSD and parenting stress and reported on their children's functioning. Emotional availability was assessed through observer-rated mother-child interactions. RESULTS: Emotional availability was not related to PTSD or child outcomes. Parenting stress had a substantial indirect effect on the relationships between maternal PTSD and child emotion regulation, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the need to target parenting stress in interventions with trauma-exposed families.

Predicting Suicide Intent: The Roles of Experiencing or Committing Violent Acts.

According to the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005), repeated exposure to painful or provocative experiences is associated with lethal or nearly lethal suicide attempts. However, suicide research often focuses on suicide ideation or attempts, rather than intent. Using data from the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys, we examined traumatic experiences, with a focus on repeated exposure to traumas, in individuals who described their suicide attempts as a strong intent to die versus a cry for help. Only repeated acts of committing violence were associated with high suicide intent, suggesting that individuals who engage in violence are at heightened risk for suicide.

Altered inflammatory activity associated with reduced hippocampal volume and more severe posttraumatic stress symptoms in Gulf War veterans.

BACKGROUND: Inflammation may reduce hippocampal volume by blocking neurogenesis and promoting neurodegeneration. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked with both elevated inflammation and reduced hippocampal volume. However, few studies have examined associations between inflammatory markers and hippocampal volume, and none have examined these associations in the context of PTSD. METHODS: We measured levels of the inflammatory markers interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble receptor II for tumor necrosis factor (sTNF-RII) as well as hippocampal volume in 246 Gulf War veterans with and without current and past PTSD as assessed with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure inflammatory markers, and 1.5Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and Freesurfer version 4.5 were used to quantify hippocampal volume. Hierarchical linear regression and analysis of covariance models were used to examine if hippocampal volume and PTSD status would be associated with elevated levels of IL-6 and sTNF-RII. RESULTS: Increased sTNF-RII, but not IL-6, was significantly associated with reduced hippocampal volume (ß=-0.14, p=0.01). The relationship between sTNF-RII and hippocampal volume was independent of potential confounds and covariates, including PTSD status. Although we observed no PTSD diagnosis-related differences in either IL-6 or sTNF-RII, higher PTSD severity was associated with significantly increased sTNF-RII (ß=0.24, p=0.04) and reduced IL-6 levels (ß=-0.24, p=0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that specific inflammatory proteins may be associated with brain structure and function as indexed by hippocampal volume and PTSD symptoms.

Web-based PTSD training for primary care providers: a pilot study.

Veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms frequently present to primary care providers (PCPs) and are reluctant to seek out or accept referrals to specialty mental health care. Most PCPs have not been trained to assess for and manage symptoms of PTSD. Web-based programs are increasingly used for medical education, but there are no published evaluations of online PTSD trainings for PCPs. We developed a 70-min Web-based training that focused on military-related PTSD for PCPs practicing in Veterans Affairs (VA) hospitals, but was applicable to PCPs treating veterans and other trauma-exposed patients outside VA settings. The training consisted of four modules: (1) Detection and Assessment; (2) Comorbid Conditions and Related Problems; (3) Pharmacological Interventions; and (4) Psychotherapeutic Interventions. Clinical vignettes dramatized key training concepts. Seventy-three PCPs completed the training and assessments pre- and posttraining and 30 days later. Paired t tests compared change in PTSD-related knowledge and comfort with PTSD-related skills, and qualitative methods were used to summarize participant feedback. After the training, mean knowledge score improved from 46% to 75% items correct, with sustained improvement at 30 days. Thirty days posttraining, PCPs reported significantly greater comfort regarding PTSD-related skills assessed; 47% reported using training content in their clinical practice. Qualitatively, PCPs appreciated the flexibility of asynchronous, self-paced online modules, but suggested more interactive content. Given the numerous barriers to specialty mental health treatment, coupled with a preference among veterans with PTSD for accessing treatment through primary care, improving PTSD competency among PCPs may help better serve veterans' mental health needs.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and cognitive function: findings from the mind your heart study.

OBJECTIVE: Prior studies have found that the patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have poorer performance on cognitive tests than patients without PTSD, but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. We examined the association between PTSD and cognitive function in a large cohort and evaluated the role of potential biological and behavioral mediators. METHOD: A cohort of 535 adult outpatients (≤ 65 years) without dementia, stroke, or other neurologic disorders was recruited from 2 Veterans Affairs medical centers between February 2008 and June 2010. PTSD was assessed with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) using DSM-IV-TR criteria. Cognitive function tests included processing speed, Trails A and B, letter fluency, category fluency, and verbal learning and recognition. Linear regression was used to evaluate the association between PTSD and cognitive function test scores and to assess potential mediators of the association. RESULTS: For our analyses of PTSD and cognitive function, we combined 178 participants who met criteria for full PTSD and 18 who met criteria for partial PTSD and had a CAPS score > 40. After adjusting for demographics, these participants with PTSD scored significantly worse on processing speed (0.30 standard deviations [SDs], P ≤ .001), category fluency (0.23 SDs, P = .01), verbal learning (0.30 SDs, P = .001), and verbal recognition (0.18 SDs, P = .048) than those without PTSD. These associations were largely accounted for by health behaviors, vascular risk factors, and depression. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of veterans under age 65 years without known neurologic disease, patients with versus without PTSD had significantly poorer performance in several domains of cognitive function, particularly in tests involving processing speed, executive function, and learning. These cognitive deficits were largely explained by modifiable risk factors. Interventions targeted at these risk factors might minimize the impact of PTSD on cognitive decline and dementia risk as patients age.

Relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and asthma among New York area residents exposed to the World Trade Center disaster.

OBJECTIVE: The heightened prevalence rates of respiratory problems and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among New York area residents following the World Trade Center disaster on September 11, 2001, have received national attention. Although there is some evidence suggesting that PTSD is associated with increased risk for asthma, this relationship has not been well documented in this population at high risk for both disorders. There is also a need to examine this relationship while controlling for notable confounds, including dust exposure and smoking. METHOD: This study examined the association between symptoms indicative of probable PTSD and the diagnosis of asthma following 9/11 among the individuals who participated in the World Trade Center Health Registry (WTCHR) baseline study between September 2003 and November 2004. A total of 71,437 participants enrolled in this study and completed questionnaires pertaining to exposure, physical health symptoms before and after 9/11, and self-reported PTSD symptoms. RESULTS: Logistic regression revealed that, compared to participants without probable PTSD, individuals with probable PTSD were 1.65 times more likely to be diagnosed with asthma following 9/11, which was significant after controlling for the effects of gender, ethnicity, income, smoking status, dust exposure, and nonspecific psychological distress [Wald χ(2) (1)=52.375, P<.001]. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that PTSD symptoms are associated with the development of asthma following 9/11 and that this relationship is not explained by sociodemographic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.

Relationships between maternal emotion regulation, parenting, and children's executive functioning in families exposed to intimate partner violence.

Recently researchers have begun to explore the extent to which children's cognitive development is influenced by experiences in the family environment. Assessing mother-child dyads exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV), a population at risk for emotional and neurocognitive problems, we examined relationships between maternal emotional regulation, parenting, and children's executive functioning (including working memory, inhibitory control, cognitve flexibility and set shifting, and planning). Positive parenting practices, as reported by the children, were correlated with children's planning and problem solving performance. Controlling for children's own emotion regulation and gender, mothers' self-reported emotion regulation abilities predicted children's performance on a task of cognitive flexibility. Girls exhibited superior emotion regulation and executive functioning performance compared to boys, and mothers of girls reported better emotion regulation abilities compared to mothers of boys. These findings add to a nascent literature suggesting that parenting and parental emotional functioning may play important roles in children's neurocognitive functioning. In addition, they help to explain the mechanisms by which children exposed to IPV experience executive functioning deficits.